Fire

Introduction

Fire is the release of energy in the form of heat, light, and other products, as a result of combining oxygen and organic materials with heat. The earliest use of fire by humans or human-related hominids has been debated, but some research suggests controlled use of fires as early as 400,000 years ago.

The number of uses for a fire are virtually limitless. Fire provides a way to manipulate resources, conserve energy, and increase longevity for the user. Here are some examples:

• Cooking food (to conserve calories by breaking down food for us)
• Eliminating / reducing infection from consumed foods
• Providing a light source
• Creating, making, and manipulating tools
• Communication and emergency signaling
• Warmth
• Psychological morale boost
• Protection from animals
• Controlled land management

Fire also has an important ecological role, clearing out the forest floor and changing the landscape in it's wake. Many species have adapted to benefit from forest fires, perpetuating the natural cycle of succession and ecosystem development.

From a modern perspective, fire has become a tool of recreation associated with nature and the outdoors. We teach fire skills because they are of the utmost importance in survival situations, they assist in connecting students with nature, and finding growth and understanding in the connection between humans and the natural world that is greater than us.

Fire Basics

Creating fire requires three things:

1. Fuel/Organic material
2. Oxygen - (from the atmosphere)
3. Heat - (you or some other source must supply the heat. example could be a spark)

These three components together are often referred to as "The Triangle of Fire." Without one of the components present, the triangle cannot become complete and you will not successfully have or start a fire. When troubleshooting fire starting or fire building failures, it is essential to evaluate these three constituents and find out what was missing.

1. Fuel

There are three sizes of fuel that we will refer to. Tinder, Kindling, and Fuel.
Tinder - Tinder is generally soft, fibrous plant material with a large surface area. Another fun nickname for this is a bird's nest, or tinder bundle. Some of the best tinder can be made from inner and outer barks, fluffy seed down, plant stalks, and many other natural materials. It is important to learn and try many materials in your area.
Kindling - Kindling are small branches of wood, roughly pencil lead thickness to pinky finger thickness. Kindling's will be placed above your tinder after ignition to absorb the heat and bring your young fire to the next stage.
Fuel - Fuel is a generic term for wood material larger than pinky thickness in diameter. Some small effective fuels can be as thick as your thumb, and once your fire becomes hot and strong enough, full logs can be applied.
When harvesting tinder, kindling, and fuel, seek the driest material possible. Materials gathered on the ground will be colder, damper, and less ideal than materials gathered standing. Broken and fallen sticks hanging in tree branches are the best because they have the opportunity to dangle and dry, thanks to gravity and the wind. They also have the added benefit of being protected by the canopy of leaves from the trees above them.

2. Oxygen

Fortunately, our atmosphere is comprised of approximately 21% oxygen. This means that when we light our fires, we do not have to add oxygen to our system.

This does, however, become a problem when our fire is stacked too tightly, and the flow of oxygen is limited; in these instances we need to adjust our materials so oxygen can make contact with the surfaces that are attempting to ignite. There are many strategies for achieving this, and fire designs and shapes will be discussed in a section below.

3. Heat

Thanks to oxygen being readily present and available, our last ingredient for combustion is heat. Theoretically, if the ambient temperature were hot enough, your fire would not need the injection of a heat source (by you) to start. That is why a branch on a bed of coals will eventually lose it's moisture and catch.

We can add heat to start a fire in a number of ways, but the most common way is with a flame from a match or lighter. We can also use friction, sparks from flint and steel, ferrocerium, or other electrical means. Different methods of heat creation will also be discussed in a dedicated section below.

Creating Fire

There are nearly unlimited ways to create a fire. This document will suggest a few options based on the core concepts of fire making described above, along with several other considerations, such as weather and extreme circumstances. Please investigate, train, and learn as much as you can about fire making. It can be a very gratifying, lifelong pursuit of mastery.

Begin by collecting all of your necessary materials up front. Start with tinder. As you're hiking and moving about, grab grasses, seed fluffs, peeling barks, and begin working your tinder bundle with your hands to soften it and increase the surface area. In adverse weather conditions, your tinder will be the most sensitive to absorbing moisture (surface area and small fibers). That's why we begin working on your tinder bundle first, and when it's nearly complete, store it near your chest inside your coat or sweater to help keep it dry, or dry it out further.

Next, we must gather kindling. Check under the protective canopies of large conifers, such as Douglas Firs and Hemlocks, for dead hanging branches. Find the smallest pencil lead size twigs and collect as many of them as you can. The best materials are as dry as possible. Seasoned, dry woods snap and break easily when you test them. Finding ample kindling is essential; fires most often fail at the kindling stage. The tinder bundle will take off with a blazing flame, and the fire does not have enough kindling to carry on, the kindling material is too large, or the kindling material is too wet. When you believe you have gathered sufficient kindling, double it. It will only help, and it may save you if your fire begins to fail. Kindling can also be stored inside your coat or sweater to dry off, but it is a bit more cumbersome. It may only be possible to do this with your best pieces.

Now that you have kindling, it's time for the big stuff. Search for the driest fuel possible, which is generally dead standing logs and branches. A helpful tip for identifying them is to seek long crack marks in the wood, called checks, beneath bark that has been removed or at ends of branches. These checks reveal that the moisture inside of the wood has escaped because the pressure build up was too great, and split the wood open so it could be released. Gather fuels of various sizes, thumb thickness, all the way up to logs. Only gather logs that match the size of the fire you wish to create. If you want to make a stealth ranger fire, you will not need bigger branches.

It is now time to organize all of your materials and set up your fire space. Keep that tinder bundle in your coat, but have it ready to go. Place like sizes together, and if it is raining or snowing, try to keep your materials covered under a tap, overhang, or tree canopy. Make sure that you establish a clean firebreak- that is, a flat circle free of debris, detritus, and other duff that could easily catch on fire from a jumping spark and cause a forest fire. You can use a shovel, a rake, your foot, or wood branches to create this space. Proceed and establish a ring for your fire in the center of your fire break. Adding depth to this fire ring under the Earth will make it safer but also limit airflow, so keep that in mind. Rocks, bricks, and other fire resistant structures can be added to increase safety and barriers that stop the fire from escaping. With experience and expert control, these may not be necessary, but remember, fire always requires a watchful eye and respect. For best practices working as a teacher and with students, especially in fire seasons, always use fire rings and fire breaks.

Now that our fire break and fire ring are in place, it's time to build a "raft." A raft is a collection of materials that keep your fire setup off the surface of the ground. This is because the ground is damp, wet, cold, and will immediately transfer all of your heat to the rest of the Earth's crust upon contact. A raft can be as simple as 4 or 5 sticks laying on the ground to set your materials on.

Next, it's time for a brace. A brace is a wall or stick that you can lean kindling material on to create structure and provide airflow. You may have been doing this already, or seen others do it, but a brace can be the structure choice that makes or breaks your fire from happening. Of course, a fire can be successful in other ways, or without a brace, but this is a tested strategy that can be implemented with the fuel you have already gathered.

Continue the operation by removing your tinder bundle from your coat and placing it on the raft. Take a large stack of kindling and lean them on the brace. The kindling should be directly above your tinder bundle. This is because as the tinder bundle ignites, the heat, flames, and air will flow upward into the kindling. This will dry your kindling out and cause them to catch and build in strength and heat. Choose your ignition method of choice (see section below) and light your tinder. As the kindling begins to crackle and smoke pours out, add more kindling. It can be helpful to criss-cross the direction of kindling pieces so they don't fall through and your fire can maintain structural integrity. This also maximizes airflow and will have the fire blistering quite quickly. It may require several rounds of criss-cross kindling adds, don't be afraid to pile it on. At the same time, pay attention to your fire and be sure no to smother it or add more kindling than it can handle. A common sign of this is when the flames cease and smoke pours out. There are few gaps between pieces and the fire can't breath. Or you may not have enough heat to keep the reaction going. Evaluate your triangle of fire and determine exactly what your fire needs. If it can't breath, try fanning it with a hat or spacing out your materials to let air through. If heat is your issue, you may have to start over and reignite, or you may be able to add more heat in certain areas with a lighter or matches. If your fuel is the problem (too big, too wet) try different pieces or begin making small wood shavings and adding them in to save your existing fire.

Once the fire has stabilized (you are not concerned about it going out at any moment, and you don't have to baby it), you can start to build up it's strength with fuel. Add fuel diagonally, always make sure to criss-cross so you don't block airflow. Similar to tetris or jenga, you want to build your fire up with fuel by finding spaces to lean the fuel on, incrementally increasing in size as the fire grows. At this stage, you need to think to the future about how long you want your fire to last and what size fuel will achieve that goal. These estimations become easier with experience and trial.

Congratulations, you have now made a fire! These principles remain mostly the same across many fire building techniques and strategies, but things won't always be perfect. Practice using different ignition methods, different configurations, different starting materials, and different weather conditions. Building a fire can be a challenge even for the most experienced veterans if the right conditions present themselves, so always practice and remember what a fire needs to thrive.

Ignition Methods

Simply put, ignition methods are ways to input the "heat" component into your fire to get it started. There are a myriad of ways you can ignite a fire, but we'll start with the most common and work our way back to some of the most complex and most ancient.

Matches & Lighters - Matches and lighters are generally accepted as modern ignition methods, and can be seen in nearly every home. They are reliable and simple to use, and easy to find success with. If you have not made many fires, it is recommended to begin with these methods so you can first focus on understanding the core of what fires need before worrying about advanced techniques. Use the lighter or matches to ignite the tinder bundle at the base of your fire set up. Please see our pages on Matches & Lighters for information on using these ignition techniques and working with kids.

Steel Wool / Electrical - When an electrical current flows through a material, the electrons moving through the medium collide with other atoms. This is called resistance, and gives off heat. This can be observed in your home when you feel a lamp that is getting hot. If the right materials are chosen, an electrical fire can be started by intentionally overheating the materials with electrical current. The most popular example of this is done by taking fine steel wool (very fibrous, much like a tinder bundle), and forcing contact with a 9V battery. The battery will pass a current through the steel wool, and before long it will glow red. When it gets hot enough, this glowing red steel wool can be placed into a tinder bundle and ignite it.

Ferrocerium Rods - (Not to be confused with Flint and Steel) Is often called the metal match. Ferrocerium Rods are composed of iron (ferro) and cerium, both metals. When these rods are struck with something hard and sharp (such as a striker, knife spine, or sharp rock), material is removed from the metal rod and flies off into the atmosphere. The oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with the exposed metal, stealing electrons from it and giving off energy as heat. These small heat particles can burn at temperatures of up to 3000 degrees Fahrenheit, work in all weather conditions, and can be aimed at tinder source with skill and practice. Ferrocerium Rods are a widely accepted, modern method of fire ignition, especially among survivalists when lighter fuel has run out or matches have become soaked. Please visit our page on Ferrocerium Rods for more information on using them with children.

Flint and Steel - Flint and steel is an ancient method of fire ignition. This method of fire starting incorporates a rock or mineral with very high sharpness, such as flint, chert, chalcedony, agate, or jasper, combined with iron pyrite (fool’s gold) or marcasite. The edge of one of the high sharpness minerals is struck with the pyrite, causing small fragments of iron to be removed from the body of the pyrite. When this happens, the oxygen in the air rapidly oxidizes the iron, giving off energy, which can be seen in the form of small glowing orange particles. Flint and steel sparks are not nearly as hot in temperature as sparks from Ferrocerium. In order to have successful ignition, charred plant fibers must be used in conjunction with the sparks, and then placed into a tinder bundle to start a fire. This method requires more practice and skill than any of the methods listed above, as well as additional materials preparation. Please visit our flint and steel and char cloth pages for more information.

Friction Fire - Fire by friction is often though of as the most ancient and primitive means of starting fires by human kind. While there is debate among archaeologists regarding the first controlled usage of fire by friction as a means of fire control, strong evidence exists for nomadic groups utilizing the hand drill method 150,000 years ago. There are several well known methods for creating fire by friction throughout the world, but the two most widely used and known are the Hand Drill and the Bow Drill. Each of these methods utilize a spindle rotating at high speeds, paired with a base board of soft wood to create high heat and fine dust particles. When the temperature of the surfaces reaches a hot enough temperature, the dust particles ignite and coalesce, forming a small glowing ember. This ember can be transferred to a tinder bundle to ignite a fire. Fire by friction is often considered a special milestone for fire wielders; it requires a high level of dedication, both in knowledge, practice, and skill. Mastery of these techniques requires many trials (and failures), and have nearly limitless possibilities and combinations for success. These methods also require knowledge of working wood and plant identification. Because this skill has been passed down for generations all the way from our early human ancestors to modern times, fire by friction also offers a ceremonious aspect as well, and is often associated with personal milestones, coordination among groups, and cultural value. For more information about Friction fire, please visit the documents describing the methods listed above.

Fire Lays & Configurations

Teepee
Log Cabin
Star Fire
Siberian Fire
Upside Down Fire
Lean-To
Key-hole
Dakota Fire Hole

Accelerants Coal Extenders

Accelerants are powerful. They are often highly combustible gasoline-like hydrocarbons that make it easier for a fire to start by lowering how much heat is needed to ignite. Examples of fire accelerants include petroleum distillates (vaseline), turpentine, gasoline, alcohols, kerosene, and gases like propane and butane. In our programs, it is generally not applicable or relevant to teach fire starting with the help of accelerants, but they can provide an important conceptual understanding.

Coal Extenders are materials that allow a coal or tinder bundle to stay hot for longer to help dry out wet materials and increase your odds having successful ignition. Examples of coal extenders include punk wood (rotten wood), tinder fungi, fluffy seed heads, and some plant materials.

Below are some examples of natural materials that can be used as accelerants and coal extenders for fires in emergency situations, poor weather, or fire teaching concepts:
Fatwood / Pitchwood
Birch Bark
Punk Wood
Tinder Fungi
Mugwort

Hazards and Staging

Fire is a tool that demands great respect, attention, and safety considerations at all times. Fire can burn down a home, a structure, an entire forest, if mismanaged. Fire can harm the user as well, either by accident or negligence.

The hazards that come with fire are what making staging fire activities so critical. If a fire is staged well, the risk is mitigated substantially. Here are some strategies for successfully staging a fire:

• Well executed fire break
• Mindfully crafted fire ring
• No trees or low hanging branches directly above the fire
• 5 Gallon bucket filled with water nearby for emergencies
• A rake to keep the fire break clear
• A shovel to churn the fire and cool it off / rebuild any necessary areas
• Attention to detail and clearly set boundaries for participants in the fire area

Working with Kids

Fire is exciting. It is part of our connection to nature, and helps us remember what it is to be human in the natural world. It provides warmth and place, and creates the environment for story and connection to one another. It can also give us the heat needed to cook food and share. All of this is possible with student participants, as long as clear boundaries and expectations are set up front, and a watchful eye maintains supervision over the group throughout the duration of the entire activity. It can be helpful to help children understand that fire demands respect and is a powerful tool that we must use carefully. Include your students in the preparation of the stage and all of the fire safety. Talking about forest fires and the devastation that fire can bring is a strong way to connect that understanding.

Fire based activities

Story Telling

Survival Scenarios

Creating Fire by various ignition methods

Wood gathering - Busy Beavers

Five minute fires

Rainy Day fires

Cooking Fires